Hydrogen-generating reactors and methods

ABSTRACT

Reactors and methods that generate hydrogen from fuel, such as naturally-occurring or synthesized hydrocarbon fuel. One embodiment of the reactor comprises a CO 2 /H 2  active membrane piston disposed inside a cylinder that provides for highly efficient and scalable hydrogen generation from hydrocarbon fuels. This embodiment may function in a two or four stroke modes. Another embodiment of the reactor comprises a dual piston configuration having CO 2  and H 2  active membrane pistons inside a single cylinder. Other embodiments of the reactor comprise flexible membranes or diaphragms that operate in a manner similar to pistons with or without regeneration of residual reaction products. Exemplary methods introduce fuel into a controllable volume, selectively control pressure, temperature and residence time of the fuel within the controllable volume, chemically react the fuel within the controllable volume with one or more catalysts to produce one or more chemical species, selectively remove via a membrane one or more of the chemical species from the controllable volume, and exhaust residual products from the controllable volume.

BACKGROUND

The present invention relates generally to reactors that generatehydrogen from hydrocarbon fuels.

Steam reforming of methanol to produce hydrogen for end use applicationsoccurs via the following overall reaction requiring a catalyst:

This typically occurs in combination with at least two intermediatereactions:

1) endothermic (consuming heat) methanol decomposition

2) reversible, exothermic (releasing heat) water gas shift (WGS)reaction

A typical reactor has a first stage that requires heat input andoperates at 250-300° C. over a catalyst that favors methanoldecomposition [Eqs. (1) and (2)] in the forward direction. Thus,conversion of methanol is achieved by the following net reaction(neglecting trace byproducts),

CH₃OH+H₂O→(3-x)H₂+(1-x)CO₂ +xCO+xH₂O0≦x≦1 ΔH>0   (4)

Because the CO concentration is too high (1-4%) in the product mixturefor the PEM fuel cells to tolerate (require CO<10 ppm), a second reactorstage is typically required, which is designed to operate at lowertemperature (100-150° C.) over a catalyst that favors the conversion ofCO into CO₂ via the water gas shift (WGS) reaction [Eq. (3)]. Also,excess water vapor is often added to further shift the equilibrium awayfrom CO towards CO₂. However, because of the reversible nature of theWGS reaction, it is impossible to convert 100% of the CO or even toreduce its concentration to <10 ppm levels. Hence, an additional thirdstage is often required to either 1) preferentially oxidize the CO toacceptable levels or 2) purify the hydrogen by separation through ahydrogen selective membrane.

Technology for large scale steam reforming of methanol is quite matureand most reactors are of the fixed catalyst bed-type, operated in asteady-state, continuous-flow regime. While suitable for large-scalehydrogen generation, these reactors are fundamentally flawed forportable and distributed applications because of the poor processscale-up/down, sequential uni-functional design not suitable forminiaturization and system integration, and poor reaction yields due tofundamental mismatch between the time scales of the catalytic chemistryand the transport processes. For transportation and small scaledistributed power applications, other important requirements includerapid startup, rapid transient response to changing power demands, highenergy efficiency, purity of hydrogen (CO<10 ppm) produced, andlightweight, compact design. Further, in addition to removal of CO fromthe product, the potential for pre-concentration of the resultinggreenhouse gas CO₂ for on-board sequestration is an appealingopportunity to reduce the environmental impact of the transportationsector. So far, it has proven difficult to meet these requirementsthrough simple miniaturization of traditional reactor designs andprocesses. Thus, there is significant interest in development ofsmall-scale, highly scalable reactors for producing hydrogen fromsynthetic (or natural) hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cell power plants withwidely varying power generation requirements (e.g. less than 1 W to morethan 100 kW). This has resulted in strong demand for revolutionary newapproach(es) to reactor designs which feature scalability,multi-functionality, and hyper-integration of the required systemcomponents.

It would be desirable to have improved reactors for generating hydrogenfrom hydrocarbon fuels.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The various features and advantages of the present invention may be morereadily understood with reference to the following detailed descriptiontaken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein likereference numerals designate like structural elements, and in which:

FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary reaction chamber of an exemplaryreactor;

FIG. 2 illustrates a cutaway view of an exemplary membrane piston usedin conjunction with the exemplary reaction chamber shown in FIG. 1;

FIGS. 3 a and 3 b illustrate an intake stroke of the reactor;

FIGS. 4 a and 4 b illustrate a compression stroke of the reactor;

FIGS. 5 a and 5 b illustrate an expansion and product discharge strokeof the reactor;

FIGS. 6 a and 6 b illustrate a CO cleanup stroke;

FIGS. 7 a and 7 b illustrate an intake stroke of the reactor of a CaseII embodiment;

FIGS. 8 a and 8 b illustrate a compression stroke of the reactor of theCase II embodiment;

FIGS. 9 a and 9 b illustrate a expansion and product discharge stroke ofthe reactor of the Case II embodiment;

FIGS. 10 a-10 c illustrate a CO cleanup stroke of the reactor of theCase II embodiment;

FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary dual piston configuration of thereactor;

FIG. 12 shows a exemplary flexible membrane reactor for hydrogen and CO₂production and separation;

FIG. 13 shows operation of the flexible membrane reactor;

FIG. 14 illustrates an intake stroke of the flexible membrane reactor;

FIG. 15 illustrates a reaction/separation stroke of the flexiblemembrane reactor;

FIG. 16 illustrates reset of the flexible membrane reactor;

FIG. 17 is a graph that illustrates methanol conversion for varioustemperatures and pressures

FIG. 18 is a graph that illustrates hydrogen yield at varioustemperatures and pressures; and

FIG. 19 is a graph that illustrates permeated hydrogen versustemperature for the exemplary flexible membrane reactor.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are exemplary reactors that generate hydrogen fromhydrocarbon fuels, naturally occurring or synthesized. These reactorsare generally “batch-type” reactors featuring on-demand controlledvolume, pressure, temperature, and reaction residence time. The reactorsoperate in a sequence of discrete sequential steps (rather than thestate of the art continuous operation), each step being preciselycontrolled by an actuator (e.g. moving piston(s), flexible membrane,etc.) resulting in an optimal reactor volume, pressure, temperature, andspecies composition. The heaters/coolers and heat exchangers can beintegrated as part of the reactor structure to achieve precise controlof temperature. The reactors are outfitted with one or moreintake/exhaust valves to move reactants and reaction products in and outof the reactor at an appropriate time/step of the entire process.Additionally, one or more of the walls of the reactor and/or actuatormay be selectively permeable to one or more of the reaction products,resulting in product purification as well as shifting of reactionequilibrium in a favorable direction. Each reactor unit is optimized forperforming a specific reaction or multiple reactions and/or separationsteps, and the scale-up to required power is achieved by paralleloperation of multiple identical units.

One embodiment of the reactor comprises a CO₂/H₂ active membrane pistoninside a cylinder that provides for highly efficient and scalablehydrogen generation from hydrocarbon fuels. This embodiment may functionin two or four stroke modes. Another embodiment of the reactor comprisesa dual piston configuration having CO₂ and H₂ active membrane pistonsinside a single cylinder. Other embodiments of the reactor compriseflexible membranes or diaphragms that operate in a manner similar topistons. The disclosed reactors meet the challenges discussed in theBackground section in a cost-effective, simple and elegant way, makingthem suitable for commercialization.

Referring to the drawing figures, FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplaryreaction chamber 11, or cylinder 11, of an exemplary reactor 10. Walls12 of the exemplary reaction chamber 11 are loaded with one or morecatalysts 13. The reaction chamber 11 preferably has a high aspectratio. The critical dimension of the reaction chamber 11 is itsthickness A, which is designed to be small with respect to diffusionlength scales (computed based on the reaction time scale) to removetransport limitations (i.e., run reaction and separation at theirintrinsic rates) as well as to provide a large specific surface area ofthe catalytically active surface.

FIG. 2 illustrates a cutaway view of an exemplary CO₂/H₂-selectivemembrane piston 14 used in the reactor 10. The CO₂/H₂-selective membranepiston 14 slides within the reaction chamber 11 shown in FIG. 1. TheCO₂/H₂-selective membrane piston 14 comprises a porous structure 15 orsubstrate 15 having a plurality of flow channels 16 formed therein. Theexterior surface of the porous substrate 15 of the membrane piston 14comprises a selectively permeable membrane 17 whose exterior surface isconfigured to have a plurality of microgrooves 16 are formed therein.

The CO₂/H₂-selective membrane piston 14 and cylinder/reaction chamber 11operate in a cycle similar to the internal combustion engine. Details ofthe design of the reactor 10 will now be discussed.

Details of the Reactor Design

Piston/Cylinder Assembly

In a preferred embodiment, the cylinder 11 features a high aspect ratio(in a planar slit shape-factor as shown in FIG. 1 or otherwise, e.g.,the hollow-ribbed-chamber) and sufficient mechanical strength towithstand operating pressures and temperatures. The interior walls 12 ofthe cylinder 11 are coated with a mixture or a layered structure ofcatalysts 13 appropriate for the fuel reforming reaction at the optimaltemperature (e.g., 200-300° C. for methanol) and for the water gas shift(WGS) reaction at lower temperatures (100-150° C.). The criticaldimension of the cylinder 11, the slit thickness (A), can be made smallenough to ensure that diffusive gas phase species transport from thebulk to the catalyst walls 12 is as fast or faster than the reactionkinetics. The high aspect ratio form factor of a slit cylinder designwith a small thickness also results in a very high specific (per unitvolume of the reactor) surface area of the catalyst, thus maximizing thepower density (and throughput per unit volume) of the reactor 10.

The piston 14 (FIG. 2) fits snugly into the cylinder 11 and isconstructed of a porous material (framework) with sufficient mechanicalstrength and durability at expected operating temperatures andpressures. The exterior walls of the piston 14 including its face areencased in highly selective and thin (˜μm scale) CO₂/H₂ permeablemembrane 17, which is not permeable to CO or H₂O. See U.S. Pat. No.6,099,621 and Huang, J., El-Azzami, L., Ho, W. S. W., (2005) “Modelingof CO2-selective water gas shift membrane reactor for fuel cell”,Journal of Membrane Science, 261 (1-2), 67-75, for examples of a CO₂ and{CO₂+H₂} selective membrane, and Johannessen, E., Jordal, K., (2005)“Study of a H-2 separating membrane reactor for methane steam reformingat conditions relevant for power processes with CO2 capture”, EnergyConversion and Management, 46 (7-8), 1059-1071, Barbieri, G., Violante,V., DiMaio, F. P., Criscuoli, A., Drioli, E., (1997) “Methane steamreforming analysis in a palladium-based catalytic membrane reactor”,Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 36 (8), 3369-3374, and Shu,J., Grandjean, B. P. A., Kaliaguine, S., (1994) “Methane Steam Reformingin Asymmetric Pd—Ag and Pd—Ag/Porous Ss Membrane Reactors”, AppliedCatalysis a-General, 119 (2), 305-325 for description and application ofH₂ selective membranes. On the exterior of the piston 14 there may alsobe a network of very small, communicating gas flow channels 18 orgrooves 18 (shown straight in FIG. 2 for illustration purposes only) inorder to enhance the mixture contact area with the membrane 17 forselective removal of the CO₂ and H₂ from the reacting mixture duringeach reaction step. Within the piston 14 are flow channels 16 to provideefficient removal of permeate. Once again, the form factor of the piston14 with high aspect ratio provides a large specific surface area ofexposed permeable membrane 17 which enhances throughput of CO₂/H₂removal while minimizing the total system volume.

The assembled piston 14 and cylinder 11 form two distinct reactordomains and pathways for the reactions to take place. The first is thebulk reaction chamber which is the volume between the face of the piston14 and the “top” (intake end, as shown in FIG. 3, for example) of thecylinder 11. Here, the reaction mixture (reagents and products)interacts intimately with the catalyst 13 on the cylinder walls 12 andwith the CO₂/H₂ selective membrane 17 covering the face of the piston11. The second domain is the network of the flow microchannels formed bythe cylinder walls 12 and the micro grooves 18 on the piston 11.Reaction mixture flowing through these channels 18 is simultaneouslyexposed to catalyst 13 on the inside of the cylinder walls 12 and theCO₂/H₂ selectively permeable membrane 17 on the exterior surface of thepiston 14.

Reactor Operation

One example of the operational sequence of the reactor 10 is thefour-stroke cycle described below and illustrated in FIGS. 3-6. FIGS. 3a and 3 b illustrate an intake stroke of the reactor 10. FIGS. 4 a and 4b illustrate a compression stroke of the reactor 10. FIGS. 5 a and 5 billustrate an expansion and product discharge stroke of the reactor 10.FIGS. 6 a and 6 b illustrate a CO cleanup stroke.

The exemplary reactor 10 provides maximum fuel conversion by properlymatching the process (i.e., piston dynamics), reaction, and separationtime scales, and reduces/eliminates CO in the product stream to <10 ppmby forcing a favorable, non-equilibrium reaction state at each stroke ofthe cycle via active removal of CO₂, H₂, or both CO₂ and H₂ from thereaction chamber through the highly permeable, selective piston membrane17.

Case I. CO₂+H₂ Selective Membrane Integrated with the Piston

Stroke 1: Intake

The first stroke (FIG. 3 a) fills the reaction chamber 11 (cylinder 11)with a methanol and water vapor mixture. Ideally, the water/carbon ratioof the mixture is unity, but in practice this ratio needs to beoptimized for various operating conditions. The walls 12 of the reactionchamber 11 are loaded with a catalyst 13 or a mixture of catalysts 13that are highly active for fuel (e.g., methanol) decomposition and steamreforming at intermediate temperatures (e.g., ˜250° C. for methanol) andwater gas shift (WGS) reaction at lower temperatures (˜120° C.). Duringthis stroke, intake and exhaust valves are open.

Stroke 2: Compression

With both valves closed, the piston 14 starts at the bottom (FIG. 4 a)and moves up, compressing the mixture. Compression of the mixture raisesthe temperature, which is favorable for the endothermic steam reformingreaction [Eqs. (1) and (2)]. If needed, heat may be added to maintainthe optimal operating temperature. High pressure in the reaction chamber11 forces permeation of H₂ and CO₂ (products of the fuel reformingreaction) through the selectively-permeable membrane 17 integrated withthe piston 14, and these products are collected on the backside of thepiston 14. It should be noted that the membrane 17 is designed to bepermeable to H₂ and CO₂ only, and it is not permeable to CO, a productthat poisons the catalyst of fuel cells. Removal of H₂ and CO₂ from thereaction chamber shifts the reaction equilibrium towards the products,ensuring maximum (ideally 100%) conversion of fuel/methanol. Sincepiston motion is controlled, the speed of the compression process can bemade to perfectly match the reaction kinetics and permeation time scalesto achieve the optimal physicochemical conditions for reaction andseparation.

A portion of the mixture that has not had sufficient time to react inthe “bulk” reaction domain of the cylinder 11 (above the piston) has aroute for passage around the edges of the piston 14 (via micro groovedsurface forming the network of microchannels 18 in the piston 14, whereit remains in contact with the cylinder wall-deposited catalyst 13 andthus further converted to products. Simultaneously, H₂ and CO₂ areseparated from the mixture as they are being produced in the same flowmicrochannels 18 by permeation through the piston-integrated selectivemembrane 17 into the part of the cylinder 11 where only desired products(H₂ and CO₂) are collected. Because the reactions (Eqs. (1) and (2)) areendothermic, temperature will gradually decrease in the flow direction(opposite to the direction of the piston motion). At these lowertemperatures, the thermodynamic conditions become favorable for thewater gas shift [Eq. (3)] reaction to proceed at a significant rate.This results in further generation of hydrogen and conversion of CO intoCO₂. Taking advantage of simultaneous removal of H₂ and CO₂ from themixture, via pressure-driven permeation across the piston-integratedselective membrane 17, the reaction equilibrium could be dramaticallyshifted and maximum (ideally 100%) conversion of CO into CO₂ isachieved. At the outlet of the microchannel network only residualamounts of H₂ and CO₂ that did not permeate across the piston-integratedmembrane 17 remain.

Stroke 3: Expansion

With the piston 14 near the top of the cylinder 11 and a pure mixture ofH₂ and CO₂ at the backside of the piston, the bottom valve is opened(FIG. 5 a) and the piston 14 moves down. The H₂+CO₂ mixture is pushedout through the valve to a collection chamber or directly to the fuelcell. The bottom part of the cylinder 11 is structurally designed insuch a way that it can accommodate the topography of the pistonelongated hollow-structure with minimal (optimally none) dead volumepresent between the piston 14 and cylinder 11 when the former reachesthe very end of the expansion stroke in the cylinder 11. Further, theexpansion of the remaining mixture in the reaction chamber (above thepiston 11) lowers the temperature to approximately 120° C. This is athermodynamically favorable condition for the water gas shift (WGS)reaction which is exothermic (heat releasing and therefore favored atreduced temperature). If needed the chamber may be further cooledexternally to achieve the optimal temperature for the WGS reaction.

Stroke 4: Final CO Cleanup

As is shown in FIGS. 6 a and 6 b, the bottom valve is closed, the piston14 is initially near the bottom of the cylinder 11, and a mixture of CO,H₂O, and residual H₂ and CO₂ is in the reaction chamber above the piston14. The piston 14 moves up and the WGS reaction proceeds while themixture is being compressed. The resulting pressure difference acrossthe piston-integrated membrane 17 drives permeation of H₂ and CO₂ whichshifts the equilibrium of the WGS reaction [Eq. (3)] towards the desiredproducts (i.e., from CO and H₂O to H₂ and CO₂). Once again, thecompression process can be made to proceed at the optimal speed, whichmatches the residence time with the time scale imposed by the chemicalkinetics of the WGS reaction. Further, the unreacted mixture proceedsalong the path around the edges of the piston 14 in a similar manner tothat described in Stroke 2 above, with the WGS reaction continuing alongthe length of the piston-embedded microchannels 18 until maximum(ideally 100%) conversion of CO into CO₂ has been achieved. When thepiston 14 reaches the top of the cylinder 11 (FIG. 6 b), all of the COhas been converted to CO₂, and all of the H₂ and CO₂ have been pushedout of the reaction chamber through the piston-integrated selectivemembrane 17 and now reside at the backside of the piston 14 in theproduct collection domain of the cylinder 11. The reactor 10 is nowready to complete the cycle (i.e. return to Stroke 1), wherein the topvalve is opened and the piston 11 moves down, bringing in freshreactants and sending the products (H₂ and CO₂) out to the collectionchamber or directly to the fuel cell.

Alternative 2—Two-Stroke Operation

An alternative mode of operation is a two-stroke cycle. The first strokeis the same as Stroke 1 in the 4-stroke cycle described above. Thesecond stroke is the compression stroke, which proceeds until all of theinitial reagents are converted into H₂ and CO₂ and removed from thereaction chamber of the cylinder 11 through the piston-integratedselective membrane 17 or around the sides of the piston 14 through themembrane/reactor microchannels 18. At the completion of the secondstroke, the reaction chamber is empty and the reactor 10 is ready forStroke 1 again, wherein the H₂ and CO₂ behind the piston 14 aredischarged out to the fuel cell through the valve at the bottom of thecylinder 11. In the two-stroke scenario the reactor 10 operation isfurther simplified, although this may not allow one to maintain the mostoptimal conditions for all chemical reactions and mixture separationsteps due to the endothermic and exothermic reactions and separationprocesses taking place simultaneously.

Case II. H₂ Selective Membrane Integrated with the Piston

In another embodiment, the membrane piston 14 is selectively permeableto H₂ only. The operation sequence and the cycle are very similar toCase I (i.e., for CO₂+H₂ selective membrane 14) previously describedwith several variations indicated in FIGS. 7-10. In particular, duringthe compression stroke (FIGS. 8 a and 8 b), only H₂ permeates themembrane, resulting in potentially pure H₂ on the backside of the piston14. During the expansion stroke (FIGS. 9 a and 9 b), pure H₂ is pushedout of the cylinder 11 through the open valve at the bottom, either to acollection chamber or directly to the fuel cell power plant. The finalCO cleanup stroke (FIGS. 10 a and 10 b) results in maximum conversion ofCO to CO₂ (via the WGS reaction), and effectively separates the products(CO₂ and H₂) as H₂ permeates the membrane 17 and CO₂ remains at the topof the cylinder 11 in the bulk reaction chamber. The CO₂ is pushed outof the cylinder through an open valve at the top of the cylinder 11 andcollected for sequestration (in this embodiment there are two valves atthe top of the cylinder 11, one for intake of reactants and one forremoval of CO₂). The reactor 10 is ready to begin the next cycle (i.e.return to Stroke 1), wherein the top intake valve is opened and thepiston moves down, bringing in fresh reactants and sending H₂ out to thecollection chamber or directly to the fuel cell.

Case III. CO₂ Selective Membrane Integrated with the Piston

An additional embodiment is that of a membrane piston 14 which isselectively permeable to CO₂ only. The operation sequence and the cycleare substantially identical to Case II (i.e., for H₂ selective membrane14) described above except that domains for CO₂ and H₂ collection areswitched in FIGS. 7-10. During the compression stroke (FIGS. 8 a and 8b), CO₂ rather than H₂ permeates the membrane 17, resulting inpotentially pure CO₂ on the backside of the piston 14. During theexpansion stroke (FIG. 9), pure CO₂ is pushed out of the cylinderthrough the open valve at the bottom, and collected for sequestration.The final CO cleanup stroke (FIGS. 10 a and 10 b) results in maximumconversion of CO to CO₂ (via the WGS reaction), and effectivelyseparates the products (CO₂ and H₂) as CO₂ permeates the membrane and H₂remains at the top of the cylinder 11 in the bulk reaction chamber. TheH₂ is pushed out of the cylinder 11 through an open valve at the top ofthe cylinder 11 (in this embodiment there are two valves at the top ofthe cylinder 11, one for intake of reactants and one for removal of H₂).The reactor 10 is ready to begin the next cycle (i.e. return to Stroke1), wherein the top intake valve is opened and the piston moves down,bringing in fresh reactants and sending CO₂ out to the collectionchamber for sequestration.

Additional Embodiments

The above descriptions of the operation of the reactor 10 for steamreforming of methanol are only exemplary. In addition, to theconfigurations described above, with single cylinder 11 and singlepiston 14, additional embodiments may use multiple pistons 14 inside asingle cylinder 11, multiple pistons 14 and reaction chambers, ordifferent cylinders 11 for each reaction step. For example, as shown inFIG. 11, the configuration with two pistons 14 (one is selectivelypermeable to H₂ and another one is selectively permeable to CO₂) movingin opposite directions enables a 2 or 4 stroke cycle with reagentintake, compression, reaction, product separation, and discharge,resulting in 100% fuel conversion, complete CO-removal, and fullseparation of desired products (H₂ and CO₂). The sequence of operationsand cycle descriptions are very similar to those described above, withminor variations depending on the configuration that is selected.Variations in piston/cylinder design, sequence of operations, valvetiming, piston motion and process time scales, temperature or pressurecycling, material selection, or any other reasonable variation that mayarise may be employed in producing the reactors 10.

The exemplary reactors 10 can operate on any natural or synthetichydrocarbon fuel from natural gas to kerosene. For the purpose ofillustration of the general design and operating principles of thereactor 10, methanol is used as the fuel being processed by the reactor10. In addition to adding specificity to the example illustrating thisgeneral inventive concept, the choice of methanol has a number ofattractive features making it potentially a preferred synthetic fuel fortransportation applications. These include (1) its state as a liquidunder normal atmospheric pressure and temperature (i.e., allowing highenergy density on-board storage), (2) high hydrogen content (per eachcarbon atom in the fuel), (3) ease of conversion into the gas phaseprior to catalytic processing due to its low saturation temperature(˜50° C.) at atmospheric pressure, and (4) the availability ofwell-developed processes and industrial scale facilities for methanolsynthesis from a variety of feedstocks.

The above-described reactors 10 enjoy several key advantages overtraditional reactors.

First, the residence time of the mixture in the reaction chamber can becontrolled precisely via operator-specified speed of the piston motionat each stroke, thus ensuring the most optimal reaction conditions ateach reaction step leading to maximum conversion rates and selectivitytowards desired products.

Second, the reactor is fundamentally operating in a transient (unsteadyor periodically-steady-state) mode and each reaction step is beingforced to proceed in the most favorable direction, taking advantage ofimposed non-equilibrium chemistry conditions.

A third advantage is the scalability of the reactor 10. Individualreactor units are optimized for size, throughput, and operatingconditions as dictated by the optimal chemistry of the process. Multiplereactors can be then stacked and operated in tandem (in, out, or with atime-shift of phase with each other) to produce a continuous stream ofproducts at a desired rate matched to the end-use application. Based onthe required hydrogen generation rate, only the necessary number ofreactor units needs to operate at any given time, and if the powerdemand changes, fewer or a greater number of reactors can immediately bebrought on (or off) line to provide the required flow of hydrogen.Unlike traditional continuous-flow reactors, the individual reactorunits can always operate at their optimal throughput, while the dynamicchanges in load and system transients can be accommodated by bringinggreater or fewer reactors into operation almost immediately.

A fourth advantage is its compact size and design/operation simplicity,which is a direct result of the integration of multiplechemical/transport processes and components into a single unit. Fueldecomposition and reforming, water gas shift reaction, mixturecompression and expansion, and separation of desired products are allaccomplished in the same location with shared hardware. Because of thehigh specific surface area of the cylinder-bound catalyst 13 and of thepiston-integrated H₂/CO₂ selective membrane 17 in the reactor 10, thereaction and separation steps are very efficient even when they arefundamentally kinetically or equilibrium limited. Further, the formfactor of the reactor 10 (exploiting high aspect ratio structures withsmall dimensions in the direction important to species transport) leadsto very efficient heat and mass transfer, making all reactions nevertransport-limited and minimizing size and weight.

A fifth advantage deals with the unique capability to pre-concentrateand separate not only hydrogen (a desired feedstock for thepower-producing fuel cell), but also carbon dioxide as the only twoeventual products of the fuel processing sequence. Thus, there is aunique capability for adding one more extra step downstream of thereactor to sequester carbon dioxide from the product stream via eitherliquefaction or an appropriate chemical reaction. This enables on-boardsequestration of carbon dioxide, a major contributor to the greenhouseeffect, which is an especially difficult and, at the present moment,unresolved task for transportation sector.

A sixth advantage of this reactor 10 is that a relevant body ofknowledge and capability has been developed through the 100+ years ofexperience with internal combustion engines. State of the artpiston/cylinder engine technology is remarkably advanced includingdesign, manufacturing, operation, control, efficiency, and cost, whichshould enhance commercialization.

Flexible Actuated Piston/Diaphragm Designs and Regenerative Operation ofthe Reactor

Referring to FIGS. 12-16, discussed below are flexible membrane reactors10 comprising a flexible piston 14 or diaphragm 14. As is shown in FIGS.12 a and 12 b, the flexible membrane reactors 10 comprise twofluidically-communicating chambers 11 a, 11 b. A reforming/hydrogenreaction chamber 11 a is shown in FIG. 12 a, and a water-gas shiftWGS/CO₂ reaction chamber 11 b is shown in FIG. 12 b, for example.Calculated data are provided in FIGS. 17-19. Steam reforming of methanolis discussed for illustrative purposes only, as any natural or synthetichydrocarbon fuel can be reformed by the described reactor.

Flexible Actuated Piston/Diaphragm Embodiment I

A first embodiment of the flexible actuated piston/diaphragm reactor 10is shown in FIG. 12. The reactor 10 comprises two similarly designedplanar high-aspect ratio chambers 11 a, 11 b featuring high specific(per unit volume) surface area, a steam-reforming, hydrogen-selectivemembrane 17 a (left side of FIG. 12), and a water-gas-shift,CO₂-selective membrane 17 b (right side of FIG. 12). The two chambers 11a, 11 b are in fluidic communication with each other. Each chamber 11 a,11 b has a flexible, externally actively controlled diaphragm 14 or apiston 14 which enables the desired operating pressure inside thechambers 11. The piston/diaphragm 14 can be actuated (moved up/down)using electrostatic, electromagnetic, hydraulic, or any other method,and with or without use of edge-integrated bellows coupling. Theinternal walls of each chamber 11 and piston 14 are coated by catalysts13 a, 13 b which enable a specific reaction to proceed.

The reactor 10 operates in a two step repeating sequence (cycle) asshown in FIG. 13. To illustrate the operation of the reactor 10, steamreforming of methanol is used as an example. However, the reactor 10 canbe made to produce purified hydrogen and carbon dioxide from anyhydrocarbon fuel.

The first step is the intake of fuel and water by the reforming/hydrogenreaction chamber 11 (left side of FIG. 13), and the intake of residualreforming reaction products from the WGS/CO₂ reaction chamber 11 aftercompletion of the previous cycle (dashed line in FIG. 13 shows directionof the reagent flow). The pistons/diaphragms 14 are initially in theextended position and begin to retract drawing in reactants. At the endof this step, the pistons/diaphragms 14 are in their fully retractedposition, reactants are in the reaction chambers, and the respectivereactions begin to proceed.

In step 2, the reactions proceed to completion as the pistons/diaphragmsslowly compress the mixture at the rate required by the reaction andpermeation processes. Simultaneously, hydrogen is permeating through thehydrogen selective membrane on the left, and CO₂ is permeating throughthe membrane on the right. The hydrogen is captured and either stored orsent directly to the fuel cell. The CO₂ is captured and stored until itcan be properly disposed of. The steam reforming reaction indicated inFIG. 13 is endothermic, requiring the addition of heat to maintain thetemperature at 200-300° C., although the temperature of mixture may besufficiently increased solely by its compression. The water gas shiftreaction is slightly exothermic, requiring heat removal to maintain thetemperature at 100-150° C. Because of the large specific surface area ofthe chamber no additional cooling other than natural circulation ofambient air may be needed to maintain optimal operating temperature. Asthe reaction and separation proceed simultaneously, the piston/diaphragmextends as necessary compressing the mixture to maintain an increasedtotal (and therefore partial) pressure and thus enhance permeation.Finally, when the reactions and permeation processes reach theirultimate equilibrium state, the remaining products are pushed out of thechambers and the system is ready to return to the first step.

In this embodiment the two reactor portions operate in phase, bothperforming the similar operations at the same time in a one-to-onecycle. The exhaust stream from the hydrogen chamber 11 a becomes theintake stream for the CO₂ chamber 11 b on the next cycle, and theexhaust from the CO₂ chamber 11 b can be recycled back into the fuelstream on the next cycle. Ideally, only pure hydrogen remains afterwater gas shift in the CO₂ chamber 11 b. In reality, the reaction andseparation processes are non-ideal, and the remaining mixture willcontain methanol, H₂, CO, and CO₂ which should be recycled for fullrecovery. In general, however, the two reactor chambers 11 a, 11 b(reforming/hydrogen and WGS/CO₂) may or may not operate in phase or viathe one-to-one cycle. That is, the phase-shifted (in time domain)operation may be more optimal under certain conditions, as well as oneor more WGS/CO₂ reaction chambers 11 a, 11 b may be needed to operate inconjunction with a single reforming/hydrogen chamber (and vice versa) toachieve the best performance. This is determined by the relativemagnitude of characteristic time scales for the reforming and WGSreactions as well as H₂ and CO₂ separation processes for any given fuel.The capability for external control of the piston (diaphragm) motion(i.e., speed/rate of production and compression ratio/selectivity andyield) should allow one to operate the reactor 10 in its most optimalmode.

Flexible Actuated Piston/Diaphragm Embodiment II

The second embodiment of the flexible actuated piston/diaphragm reactor10 takes advantage of the fact that the two independently-controlledreacting units of the reactor 10 (i.e., reforming/hydrogen and WGS/CO₂)may be timed to operate in-phase and in a one-to-one cycle. Thepiston/diaphragm 14 is modified to operate in a bi-directional mode,wherein it may extend in either direction (up or down), thus changingthe volume/pressure in both a membrane reaction chamber “in front” aswell as a collection chamber “behind” each unit of the reactor 10. Thetwo reactor chambers 11 a, 11 b are integrated into a single reactor 10via inter-connected passageways and valves between the reaction andcollection chambers. The operation is similar to that previouslydescribed for embodiment I, but with several modifications as shown inFIGS. 14-16.

Referring to FIG. 14, the combined cycle begins with the intake stroke,wherein the piston/diaphragm 14 within the reforming/hydrogen unit (leftpart of the figure) moves into its “up” position. During this up-stroke,the unreacted/unseparated mixture from the collection chamber of the WGSunit shown on the right and a fresh mixture of fuel and water vapor aredrawn into the collection chamber (at the bottom) of thereforming/hydrogen unit.

Referring to FIG. 15, in step 2, the valves are closed and thepiston/diaphragm in the WGS/CO₂ reaction unit (shown on the right sideof the figure) moves to the up position. During the upward motion of thepiston, water-gas shift (WGS) reaction (CO+H₂O→CO₂₊H₂) and CO₂permeation (removal) occur simultaneously in the top “reaction” chamberof the WGS/CO₂ reaction unit. Meanwhile in the reforming/hydrogen unit,hydrogen is permeating through an H₂ selectively permeable membrane, andthe steam reforming reaction is proceeding in both the upper(“reaction”) and lower (“collection” chambers. When the reaction andpermeation processes approach their ultimate equilibrium, a valve at theright connecting the upper (“reaction”) and lower (“collection”)chambers of the WGS/CO₂ unit opens and the mixture remaining in the“reaction” WGS/CO₂ chamber is sucked into the “collection” WGS/CO₂chamber.

Referring to FIG. 16, finally in step 3, the system returns to itsinitial state to prepare for the next intake stroke. Thepiston/diaphragm 14 in the WGS/CO₂ reaction unit moves down, the valveconnecting the reforming/hydrogen unit and the WGS/CO₂ unit opens up andthe retentate mixture from the “reaction” chamber of thereforming/hydrogen unit is drawn into the “reaction” chamber of theWGS/CO₂ unit. Next, the valve between reforming/hydrogen and WGS/CO₂unit closes, and the piston/diaphragm in the reforming/hydrogen unitmoves down, while opening the valve between the “reaction” and“collection” chambers of the reforming/hydrogen unit and pushing thereformate mixture from the lower “collection” chamber into the upper“reaction” chamber of this unit. The system has completed a cycle and isready to proceed to the intake step shown in FIG. 14.

Regeneration/Recycling of “Waste” Products

The regenerative reactor 10 just described achieves 100% fuelutilization as well as 100% separation/purification of both the hydrogenand byproduct CO₂ generated as reaction products. This is a significantdevelopment from a practical viewpoint, considering that by using thedescribed designs and process organization (embodiment I & II) it is nolonger required that any of the individual steps in the process (steamreforming, hydrogen separation, WGS reaction, and CO₂ separation)operate at their ideal limit. Rather the individual steps should proceedas far as practically possible and then the remaining unreacted orunseparated products are recycled back into the fuel stream to be usedduring the next cycle of the system.

In typical conventional hydrogen-selective membrane reactors, only H₂ isseparated from the reformate (products). Hydrogen separation via aselectively permeable membrane relies on a partial pressure differenceof hydrogen across the membrane. As hydrogen is removed from thereformate mixture, both total pressure and H₂ concentration fall,leading to a precipitous drop in H₂ partial pressure. Because the H₂partial pressure on the permeate side is not zero, some hydrogen willalways be left on the retentive side. A trade-off occurs betweenminimizing the residence time of the mixture in the membrane reactor,and maximizing the percentage of hydrogen that is recovered. Theleftover retentive mixture is enriched in CO₂, yet still contains H₂ andCO, which are both valuable fuels. Small, incremental improvements inhydrogen recovery generally require large increases in system volume (toincrease residence time and improve H₂ permeation) if one is to use thecurrently practiced process organization.

The high CO₂ concentration in this waste stream suggests that it isfeasible to separate a large percentage of the CO₂ (via a CO₂selectively permeable membrane, following its liquefaction for storage,or other method) and then recycle the remaining valuable products (CO,H₂O, H₂) back into the fuel stream. This results in 100% fuelutilization as well as separating 100% of the byproduct CO₂ forsequestration and storage. CO₂ is believed to be one of the majorcontributors to anthropogenically induced climate change and thus may beviewed as a potentially dangerous environmental pollutant. Therefore,the described embodiments I and II (FIGS. 12-16) and unique processorganization of the reactor technology (i.e., via enabling the optimaltiming of reactions, simultaneous separation of products, andregeneration of the exhaust stream) should have application to anysystem where it is desirable to convert hydrocarbon fuel to purehydrogen without wasting any fuel and without emitting carbon dioxide tothe environment.

To demonstrate this capability and establish the ideal limit of how thereactors 10 are expected to operate, a thermodynamic analysis of amethanol steam reforming, hydrogen-selective membrane reactor 10 wascarried out. Several realistic scenarios are investigated usingequilibrium calculations of the species concentrations, including CO₂removal from the reformate and recycling of the remaining mixture(including H₂, CO, and CO₂) back into the fuel stream. It isdemonstrated that the fuel mixture intake and composition can beadjusted according to the quantity and composition of the recycledproducts to establish periodic quasi-steady state operation of thereactor, wherein the fuel input and hydrogen recovery per cycle areconstant. As one would expect, the hydrogen production per cycle isslightly lower than if no recycling took place; however, this comes withthe tremendous benefit of wasting no fuel as compared to the case whenincompletely-reacted “exhaust” rich in potent, fuel-suitable components(e.g., CO) is simply discharged to the environment.

Equilibrium Calculations

Ideally, in steam reforming of methanol (CH₃OH), one mole of CH₃OH andone mole of water vapor react to yield 3 moles of H₂ and one mole ofCO₂. Because of methanol decomposition and the water gas shift (WGS)reaction, the net steam reforming reaction is

CH₃OH+H₂O→(3-x)H₂+(1-x)CO₂ +xCO+xH₂O

where x is the fraction of carbon in the fuel that is oxidized to COrather than CO₂ (via WGS or methanol decomposition). The equilibriumconcentrations of reactants and products are calculated from theequilibrium reaction constants (thermodynamic data), which depend ontemperature and total pressure. For illustrative purposes thesecalculations are carried out for the temperature range of 200-300° C.and pressure range of 1-10 atmospheres.

Methanol conversion (FIG. 17) increases with temperature because thesteam reforming reaction is endothermic, and decreases with increasingpressure because the number of moles of products exceeds the moles ofreactants by approximately 2:1.

Hydrogen yield (FIG. 18) is slightly less than ideal (3 moles of H₂ permole of reactant) across the temperature and pressure ranges shown.Hydrogen yield decreases slightly with increasing temperature (for P=1atm) because it is consumed in the reverse WGS reaction (CO₂+H₂→CO+H₂O),which is favored at higher temperatures. At elevated operatingpressures, hydrogen yield initially increases with temperature asmethanol conversion increases, but then decreases at higher temperaturesas the effects of the WGS reaction become more pronounced. Althoughhydrogen yield is very high (more than 90% of the ideal limit), thehydrogen is not pure, but is mixed with 1-5% CO, 15-20% CO₂, and traceamounts of unreacted CH₃OH.

Reactions with Hydrogen Separation

In the reactors 10, hydrogen is separated from the products as thereaction is occurring. The amount of hydrogen removed depends on thepartial pressure difference of hydrogen between the reaction andpermeate sides. Thus, the partial pressure of hydrogen on the reactionside must always be greater than or equal to that on the permeate side.For illustrative purposes equilibrium calculations of a hydrogenselective membrane reactor are carried out for several values of totaloperating pressure and with various minimum allowable hydrogenconcentrations (unseparated hydrogen) remaining on the reaction(retentate) side after the reaction and permeation process reachequilibrium.

First it is assumed that the retentate mixture, after permeation reachesequilibrium, contains 10% hydrogen (by mole fraction). Table 1 shows theresulting mixture composition for various reactor temperatures and anoperating pressure of 1 atm (Case 1) with and without hydrogen removal.Table 2 shows the results for an operating pressure of 10 atm (Case 2).Table 3 shows the results for an operating pressure of 5 atm, assumingthat the retentate mixture contains 20% hydrogen (Case 3) after thepermeation reaches equilibrium. Notice that the methanol conversionincreases and CO decreases when hydrogen is removed due to theequilibrium shift as hydrogen is separated from the mixture.

Table 1 shows equilibrium composition of product stream with and withouthydrogen separation/removal (P=1 atm). Table 2 shows equilibriumcomposition of product stream with and without hydrogenseparation/removal (P=10 atm).

Table 3 shows equilibrium composition of product stream with and withouthydrogen separation/removal (P=5 atm).

Of particular interest is the hydrogen recovered (separated) per mole offuel and water. In the previous section it was shown that between 2.7and 2.9 moles of hydrogen are produced (in the limit of chemicalequilibrium). However, in those cases, the hydrogen was notseparated/removed from the mixture and therefore not completely usable.FIG. 19 shows the production of pure, separated hydrogen for the threemembrane reactor cases just mentioned. The first two cases are forreactors operating at 1 and 10 atmospheres of total pressure. Theresults are virtually indistinguishable because the hydrogen content ofthe remaining retentive mixture (after separation) is the same (10%) inboth cases. In the third case this percentage is doubled (20%) resultingin a lower yield of pure, separated hydrogen (because more is leftbehind in the “exhaust” stream).

CO₂ Removal

The mixture that remains, after steam reforming and hydrogen separationprocesses are complete, is enriched in CO₂ (Tables 1-3). Forillustrative purposes, we simulate a case where the CO₂ is separatedfrom this mixture by liquefaction. The saturation pressure of pure CO₂at 15° C. is 50 bars. By raising the pressure to 100 bars, and coolingthe present mixture to 15° C., CO₂ will condense out of the gas phaseleaving behind a mixture that is saturated with CO₂ vapor in equilibriumwith the liquid phase (in this case, 50% CO₂ vapor). The balance of thegas phase mixture in this example is H₂ and CO. (Water vapor andmethanol will be condensed to liquid under these conditions.)

Product Recycle

The remaining product mixture is recycled into the fuel stream of thereactor 10. The quantity of methanol is reduced so that the total carbon(CH₃OH, CO, and CO₂) in the fuel mixture remains at 1 mole. The watervapor is reduced so that the ratio of unreacted carbon (CH₃OH and CO) towater vapor is 1:1. An example of the fuel stream composition (based onthe results of calculations for Case 1 above) is shown in Table 4. Giventhis fuel mixture, the steam reforming and hydrogen membrane separationprocesses are simulated and the resulting mixture composition iscalculated. Table 5 compares the results from an initially pure fuelmixture (Case A) and the fuel mixture that includes the recycledproducts (Case B shown in Table 4). The species concentrations of theresulting mixtures are virtually the same (within the error of theapproximate calculations) for both cases. This indicates that theprocess of recycle, reaction, hydrogen separation, and CO₂ removal couldbe repeated over and over in a quasi-steady fashion. However, therecovered hydrogen (separated) per cycle (Case B) is reduced by 15-20%compared to the non-recycle case (Case A). Thus, the power density ofthe reactor is reduced due to recycling. While this is generally anundesirable effect, it is a small price to pay for achieving 100% fuelutilization and 100% CO₂ capture, especially in applications emphasizingenergy conversion efficiency and environmental cleanliness. Table 4shows fuel mixture with recycled products and Table 5 shows reactionproduct output without (A) and with (B) recycling.

Thus, in general, disclosed is reactor apparatus that includes a chamberhaving an input port and an output port, and a membrane coupled to thechamber that is selectively permeable to one or more chemical species. Acatalyst is present in the chamber that catalyzes one or more chemicalreactions. An actuator is used to introduce fuel into the chamber,control the volume of the chamber to cause catalytic chemical reactionswithin the chamber and cause separation of selected species via themembrane, and for exhausting reaction products from the chamber.

Furthermore, in broad terms, a method has been disclosed for processingfuel, that includes (1) introducing fuel into a controllable volume, (2)selectively controlling pressure, temperature and residence time of thefuel within the controllable volume, (3) chemically reacting the fuelwithin the controllable volume with one or more catalysts to produce oneor more chemical species, and (4) exhausting residual products from thecontrollable volume.

Thus, exemplary reactors and methods that generate hydrogen from fuel,such as naturally-occurring or synthesized hydrocarbon fuel, have beendisclosed. It is to be understood that the above-described embodimentsare merely illustrative of some of the many specific embodiments thatrepresent applications of the principles disclosed herein. Clearly,numerous and other arrangements can be readily devised by those skilledin the art without departing from the scope of the invention.

1. Reactor apparatus comprising: a chamber having an input port and anoutput port; a membrane coupled to the chamber that is selectivelypermeable to one or more chemical species; a catalyst present in thechamber, wherein the catalyst causes one or more chemical reactionswithin the chamber; and an actuator for controlling the volume of thechamber or its compartments and residence time of chemical species, thuscausing optimal pressure and temperature for the chemical reactionswithin the chamber and species separation via the membrane.
 2. Theapparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the actuator also controlsintroduction of fuel into the chamber.
 3. The apparatus recited in claim1 wherein the actuator also controls exhaust of products from thechamber.
 4. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the membrane isselectively permeable to hydrogen, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen andcarbon dioxide.
 5. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the catalystis suitable for fuel-steam-reforming, or fuel-decomposition, orwater-gas-shift, or fuel-steam-reforming and fuel-decomposition andwater-gas-shift reactions.
 6. The apparatus recited in claim 1 whereinthe actuator comprises a movable piston.
 7. The apparatus recited inclaim 1 wherein the actuator comprises a movable piston disposed withinthe chamber and wherein the membrane comprises a hydrogen, or carbondioxide, or hydrogen and carbon dioxide selective membrane integratedinto the piston.
 8. The apparatus recited in claim 1 which comprises aplurality of movable pistons disposed within the chamber.
 9. Theapparatus recited in claim 8 wherein each respective piston incorporatesa membrane that is selectively permeable to a selected chemical species.10. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein the catalyst is disposed onwalls of the chamber.
 11. The apparatus recited in claim 1 wherein thecatalyst is disposed inside the chamber.
 12. The apparatus recited inclaim 1 wherein the catalyst is part of the actuator.
 13. The apparatusrecited in claim 1 wherein the actuator comprises a flexible diaphragmor plurality of diaphragms.
 14. The apparatus recited in claim 13wherein each respective diaphragm incorporates a membrane that isselectively permeable to a selected chemical species.
 15. The apparatusrecited in claim 1 wherein the chamber comprises flexible or movingwalls.
 16. The apparatus recited in claim 1 further comprising a heatexchanger for transferring heat to or from the chamber.
 17. Theapparatus recited in claim 1 which comprises: a plurality ofinterconnected chambers that each comprise an input port and an outputport; a plurality of actuators coupled to respective chambers forindependently controlling the volume of the respective chamber andresidence time of chemical species, thus causing optimal pressure andtemperature for chemical reactions within the respective chamber andspecies separation via the membrane; wherein at least one of thechambers or one of the actuators contain the catalyst; and wherein themembrane is selectively permeable to one or more chemical species, andis coupled to at least one of the chambers or is incorporated into atleast one of the actuators.
 18. The apparatus recited in claim 17further comprising a second membrane coupled to a second chamber that isselectively permeable to one or more chemical species.
 19. The apparatusrecited in claim 17 wherein each chamber comprises an actuator, membraneand catalyst, and wherein selected chambers are coupled to each otherand are operated together.
 20. A method for processing fuel, comprising:introducing fuel into a controllable volume; selectively controllingpressure, temperature and residence time of the fuel within thecontrollable volume; chemically reacting the fuel within thecontrollable volume aided by one or more catalysts to produce one ormore chemical species; and exhausting residual products from thecontrollable volume.
 21. The method recited in claim 20 furthercomprising removing the one or more chemical species from thecontrollable volume via one or more membranes.
 22. The method recited inclaim 21 wherein the one or more membranes are selectively permeable tohydrogen, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
 23. The methodrecited in claim 20 further comprising controlling volume, pressure, andtemperature via one or more actuators.
 24. The method recited in claim20 further comprising transferring heat to or from the controllablevolume.
 25. The method recited in claim 20 wherein the catalystscatalyze fuel-steam-reforming, or fuel decomposition, orwater-gas-shift, or fuel-steam-reforming and fuel decomposition andwater-gas-shift reactions.
 26. The method recited in claim 20 furthercomprising: introducing the residual products into a second controllablevolume; selectively controlling pressure, temperature and residence timeof the residual products within the second controllable volume;chemically reacting the residual products within the second controllablevolume aided by one or more catalysts to produce one or more additionalchemical species; and exhausting residual products derived from theadditional chemical species from the second controllable volume.
 27. Themethod recited in claim 20 further comprising: reintroducing theresidual products and fuel into the controllable volume; selectivelycontrolling pressure, temperature and residence time of the residualproducts and fuel within the controllable volume; chemically reactingthe residual products and fuel within the controllable volume aided byone or more catalysts to produce additional chemical species; andexhausting products derived from the additional chemical species fromthe controllable volume.
 28. The method recited in claim 20 furthercomprising: introducing the chemical species into a second controllablevolume; selectively controlling pressure, temperature and residence timeof the chemical species within the second controllable volume;chemically reacting the chemical species within the second controllablevolume aided by one or more catalysts to produce one or more additionalchemical species; and exhausting residual products from the secondcontrollable volume.